Since the research aims at capturing the regional effects on pastoralism during instability, three conflict-prone regions located on transnational pastoralist routes (with a similar design) were selected so that we can explore whether the governance of pastoralism and resource conflicts makes a difference to the extent to which pastoralism intersects with conflict and instability in the region. The Sahel and East region were selected within the Liptako-Gourma region, and the Boucle du Mouhoun region in the West connecting Sahelian producing areas and West African markets. In both of these areas, pastoralism is economically profitable, but is subject to tensions due to water and fodder scarcity, the reduction of grazing lands and mounting insecurity – disrupting traditional transhumance corridors and resulting in an increase in resource conflicts. These have been further exacerbated by livestock thefts at the hands of organized criminal and/or armed groups – further fuelling tensions between border communities.

The Sahel region is a vast pastoral area and it is there that we find the most homogeneous social and ethnic composition as the Fulani make up most of the population. The East region has a different dynamic with less livestock than the Sahel but hosts important markets such as the export market of Fada N’Gourma. This means that many transhumant pastoralists transit through the area. Boucle du Mouhoun has long been an important part of transhumance routes moving into Mali, a trajectory that has been completely immobilised due to security threats. The region however accommodates large-scale agricultural investments and land occupation and wealthy farmers become more involved in the livestock trade – often more than pastoralists – reinvesting their farming incomes into cattle. This translates into an increasing number of locally owned cattle, drawing in Fulani herders to look after them.

The selection of these regions was done in consultation with experts in the field and based on desk research. In the selection of the locations additional security criteria were considered such as guaranteed security in the locations and accessibility during the expected period of fieldwork. Because of the increased insecurity spreading through Burkina Faso in 2019-2020, the selection of municipalities was, however, eventually contingent on the security and accessibility of the locations during the period of the fieldwork. Additional interviews with focus groups took place to attain the initially required number. As such, we eventually conducted research in 8 municipalities in the East region, 5 municipalities in the Sahel, and 2 in the Boucle du Mouhon, 15 municipalities in total.

The study used a mix of desk research, interviews, and focus groups. The desk research consisted of gathering information on relevant interventions, policies, laws, and local developments to date with the dynamics on the ground. This included reviews of literature from academia, and policy-oriented writings from UN agencies, NGOs, INGOs, governments, conferences, and workshops as well as insights from researchers on the ground.

Table 1
Research locations per region

East Region

Sahel Region

Boucle du Mouhoun region

Phase 1

Komin Yanga

Fada

Gayeri

Kompienga

Koulfo

Bogandé

Tawalbougou

Ouargaye

Manni

Pama

Djibo

Dori

Gorom-Gorom

Namsigua

Bamboul

Baraboule

Bourzanga

Seytenga

Nouna

Barani

Phase 2

Fada

Bèna

Table 2
Overview of data collection

East Region

Sahel Region

Boucle du Mouhon Region

Phase 1

Total of FGD

29

11

5

Total of KII

29

20

10

Phase 2

Total of FGD

11

11

Total of KII

1

1

Data collection took place in two phases, first between November 2019 and January 2020, and second in August 2020. The first phase of data collection served to collect the bulk of the data used in the study, conducting a total of 45 FGDs and 59 KIIs. The interviews and FGDs were conducted in French, Fulani and other local languages. A team consisting of researchers on the ground either from or familiar with the regions was trained during a workshop to conduct structured key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) in the selected municipalities.[127] In every municipality, the local research teams conducted KIIs with herders, farmers, people that work in the animal industry (selling meat, hides, other derivatives), people that operate water points and markets, traditional authorities and state authorities (as far as these are present), including security forces and self-defence groups. Focus group participants explicitly included women, young people and underrepresented groups.[128] Throughout this phase, the lead researchers also made two trips to Burkina Faso to conduct interviews in person with policy makers, experts, (I)NGOs, the Liptako Gourma Authority and herders’ and farmers’ associations in the capital Ouagadougou to identify the main policies that are currently being adopted to address resource conflicts and transhumance, their degree of implementation and their effects on the livelihoods of and relationships between different pastoral actors.

The second phase of data collection in August 2020 consisted of a value chain analysis of pastoralism in the region based on the date collected in the field. The value chain analysis identified each step in the cattle value chain process – from herding to selling, butchering, packaging, and retailing to consumers. It identified actors at each stage and the margins they earn. It consisted of one local researcher from the region conducting interviews and FGDs with key informants in Boucle du Mouhon.

This second phase of data collection was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic which resulted in travel and movement restrictions to/in Burkina Faso between March and July 2020. Because of the increased insecurity between the inception phase in September 2019 and the second phase of data collection in August 2020, it was decided that the local researcher would not travel to the Sahel and East region for security purposes, but rather conduct phone interviews with actors from the region. To mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on the value chain analysis, the local researcher realized two separate value chain analysis pre- and post-COVID-19. The second phase of data collection obtained 11 KIIS and 1 FDG in each region.

The researchers on the ground provided French transcripts of the KIIs and FGDs to the Clingendael project team. Because of the sensitive nature of the questions and the fact that data collection took place in remote areas experiencing ongoing violence and insecurity, receiving a recording of the interviews was not possible and maximum care was taken to anonymize the respondents. We aimed to receive verbatim transcripts. To ensure the quality and consistency of the data, the authors engaged with the researchers on the ground on a daily to weekly basis to follow up on data collection issues and to answer questions from the field. Transcripts were coded in NVivo. A codebook was developed focusing on identifying actors and relationships within the pastoral value chain, mobility patterns, access and challenges to natural resources and pastoral land, conflict-resolution mechanisms and recommendations and solutions from the ground.

These interviews and focus groups focused on the historical role of pastoralism in the community (and the changes thereto), pastoralism’s main benefits for the community as well as some of the main grievances it has caused, the management of pastoralism by the community/state and the way in which herders organize themselves, the major threats that herders face in these times (and the way in which these threats manifest themselves) and the major opportunities that are currently available to herders.
One focus group with people benefitting from pastoralism – including women, one focus group with people not benefitting from pastoralism – including women, and one focus group discussion with young persons.