Beyond the obvious point that interventions for dealing with hybrid coercive organisations – and the states in which they exist – must be based on context-specific analysis, this analysis offers a few more specific points for consideration. First and foremost, it is essential for effective peacebuilding interventions to understand the relative weight of the proxy, domestic political economy and social constituency interests of a particular hybrid coercive organisation, its relations and its growth perspectives. This is a difficult task – as it requires detailed study of local cultural, religious and political histories and dynamics – but it is far from impossible. Long-term research partnerships between local and international think tanks and universities that are guided by clear policy objectives and adequate research-policy-practice dialogue can go a long way.

Once the character of both a particular hybrid coercive organisation and the government of a particular state are understood, peacebuilding interventions that seek to reduce violence should take as a starting point whichever interaction dynamic prevails between a hybrid coercive organisation and the government (see Section 4). Since these interaction strategies are a function of the respective orientations, perceptions and relative strengths of hybrid coercive organisations and the government, they offer entry points for external interventions to make their support count – and can perhaps even tip the balance from one dynamic to another. Table 5 provides practical building blocks for interventions in response to each interaction dynamic.

Table 2
Building blocks for interventions that deal with hybrid coercive organisations

Interaction dynamic

Building blocks

Concrete examples

1) Cooptation

Key peacebuilding aim: Engage in inclusive statebuilding

Promote transparency of the cooptation arrangement / parameters

Publication and public discussion / outreach

Promote flexibility in arrangements that reduce violence without locking in the future

Sunset clauses, joint research on effects and joint committees, a national dialogue process

Encourage competitive coordination of hybrid coercive organisations under the shadow of hierarchy

Grant hybrid coercive organisations state-like responsibilities, formalise this, but supervise performance

Interaction dynamic

Building blocks

Concrete examples

2) Accommodation

Key peacebuilding aim: Prevent conflict

Support confidence-building measures

Establish de-escalation procedures, joint supervision committees and exchanges

Create common incentives that can generate joint interests in stability

Initiate joint economic projects through investment, charities or NGOs

Encourage territorial control to shift to sectoral control

Re-establish unified physical state control in exchange for e.g. control over an economic activity or a state asset

Interaction dynamic

Building blocks

Concrete examples

3) Confrontation

Key peacebuilding aim: Shorten conflict

Decisively support one side if feasible and practical

Diplomatic advocacy, aid, peacekeeping, arms, direct military intervention

Support effective disarmament and reintegration after the conflict

DDR-type initiatives, community security and development

Promote generous inclusion of the defeated party once conflict is over

National dialogue process, targeted reconstruction, development of historical/political narrative, pre-fixed limited political representation and/or other prerogatives

Interaction dynamic

Building blocks

Concrete examples

4) Gradual capture

Key peacebuilding aim: If government is positively re-established, engage in targeted statebuilding

Encourage broad governance inclusion in terms of policy effects and resource allocation

Promote research and analysis of policy effects, initiate perception surveys and promote gradual inclusion in the governance of the state

Strengthen peaceful counter-voices in civil society and among religious actors

Create a ‘dialogue and dissent’ trust fund to nurture civic capability for political advocacy and policy input

Key peacebuilding aim: If government is cannibalised, limit aid and increase diplomatic pressure

Instigate sanctions and make financial support conditional on practical governance improvements

Analyse sources of revenue and target these, symbolically ostracise individual elite members

Promote dialogue and constrain negative spillover in parallel to the above

Explore track-II conversations, increase domestic intelligence and law enforcement capabilities where these are still functional, enforce due diligence of mineral supply chains, promote the likes of EITI

While these strategies will need to be tailored to context, they offer basic ideas for how external parties might nudge the interaction between hybrid coercive organisations and the government in a direction that helps to reduce violence based on a more realistic assessment of what is feasible.