When the EU Strategic Compass was released at the end of March 2022 few commentators noted the reference to ‘specialisation’ in the section on investing in capabilities:

“In addition to investing in future capabilities and innovation, we need to make better use of collaborative capability development and pooling endeavours, including by exploring tasks specialisation between Member States. We will build on successful examples such as the European Multi-Role Tanker and Transport Fleet.”[1]

The term ‘specialisation’ was inserted into the text of the Compass at the request of the Netherlands, based on its Defence Vision 2035 (DV35) document of October 2020. The DV35 lists ten design principles for future Dutch armed forces.[2] Design principle 9 is entitled ‘Focus on further specialisation within the EU and NATO’.[3] The DV35 does not specify in what capabilities the Dutch armed forces will further specialise, although the point of departure is defined as: “Each country has a natural leaning towards certain capabilities and type of deployment.” Excelling in submarines, the cyber domain, special operations forces and missile defence are mentioned as Dutch ‘specialisms’ that could be expanded. Boldly, the text states that “Specialisation ultimately means that there are some things we will no longer do – that will be possible if these tasks are taken over by our partners, and vice versa.”

In line with the DV35, the recently released Dutch Defence White Paper 2022 mentions the “strengthening of specialisms” as one of the six main courses of action. The White Paper states that the Ministry of Defence will “make targeted investments in specific capabilities and skills where we add significant value” with the objective of increasing resulting “combat power and the effectiveness of deployment”.[4] The term specialisation is also mentioned, but rather as a long-term objective. It is “a far-reaching form of cooperation with the aim to make more use of the individual strengths of partners and allies.”[5]

The use of two terms – specialism and specialisation – raises the question of definition. In what sense are they different and where do they perhaps overlap? Many countries have specialisms, such as missile defence or military space capabilities. How can this be embedded in more far-reaching specialisation? Furthermore, specialisation itself needs further explanation and categorisation as different forms exist, ranging from mutual dependencies between countries on capabilities to more limited forms of dependency, such as using each other’s training and maintenance facilities.

This report addresses what specialisation can entail and how it can build on specialisms. It explores specialisation’s scope and analyses its potential, parameters and feasibility. Furthermore, by offering a categorisation of specialisation, the authors aim at providing a framework for considering concrete options. In chapter 2, the definitions and different forms of specialisation as well as risk factors and its opportunities will be outlined. In the subsequent chapter, the focus is on exploring practical options, taking into account the various models of specialisation, and the requirements of NATO and the EU. This chapter builds on a Clingendael policy brief on the same subject, published in October 2021.[6] Chapter 4 lists the conclusions and provides specialisation options for the Dutch armed forces.

The methodology applied to this report is based on a mix of literature desk research and interviews conducted with officials at various Ministries of Defence and Foreign Affairs in a selection of larger and smaller European countries, experts at EU and NATO institutions, and with researchers at various think tanks across Europe. Interviews took place under the Chatham House Rule and the authors are grateful for the provision of important and often practical input by these experts.

European External Action Service, A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence, March 2022.
The Netherlands Ministry of Defence, Defence Vision 2035: Fighting for a safer future, 15 October 2020.
Design principle 9 states as objectives for 2035: “It is our policy commitment in NATO and the EU to achieve further specialisation and full interoperability. From a versatile and high-end quality base we will build on our own specialisation. We will intensify our collaboration with strategic partners as a step towards specialisation.”
The Netherlands Ministry of Defence, A stronger Netherlands, a safer Europe: Investing in a robust NATO and EU (Summary), Defence White Paper 2022, June 2022.
Ministerie van Defensie, Sterker Nederland, veiliger Europa: Investeren in een krachtige NAVO en EU, Defensienota 2022, juni 2022. Translation into English by the authors.
Dick Zandee, European defence: Specialisation by capability groups, Clingendael Policy Brief, October 2021.