The authors wish to thank the expert interviewees, as well as the policymakers and academics who contributed to an expert session on the topic on 8 April 2025 in The Hague.
Disclaimer: This report will be published under the framework agreement for the China Knowledge Network (CKN), funded by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, for knowledge exchange with all Dutch ministries regarding policy challenges and opportunities related to China. Responsibility for the content and opinions expressed lies solely with the authors. The network is managed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ and the Leiden Asia Centre.
About the authors
Alexandre Gomes is a Research Fellow at the Netherlands Institute for International Relations ‘Clingendael’ in The Hague, where he is part of the EU and Global Affairs Unit and of the ‘Geopolitics of Technology and Digitalisation’ programme. His research focuses on the role of technology in geopolitics.
Maaike Okano-Heijmans is a Senior Research Fellow at the Netherlands Institute for International Relations ‘Clingendael’ in The Hague, where she leads the ‘Geopolitics of Technology and Digitalisation’ programme. She is also a Visiting Lecturer in the Master of Science in International Relations and Diplomacy (MIRD) programme of the University of Leiden.
Miriam Sainato is a former Research Assistant at Clingendael’s EU and Global Affairs Unit, where she contributed to the Geopolitics of Tech and Digitalisation programme.
Niels ten Oever is an Assistant Professor in the European Studies department and Co-Principal Investigator of the Critical Infrastructure Lab at the University of Amsterdam. He is also Coordinator of the ‘Tech, Power, and Policy’ theme group at the Amsterdam Centre for European Studies and Visiting Professor at the Centro de Tecnologia e Sociedade at Fundação Getúlio Vargas in Rio de Janeiro.
Susann Lüdtke has a doctoral degree in economics. She was a research fellow at the University of Trier and the University of Würzburg. Dr. Lüdtke worked for Bosch and Siemens Household Appliances (BSH) in China and as a consultant for the automotive industry and for patent data analytics and IP management. In 2025, she launched Lüdtke Intelligence Analytics – L.I.A., consultancy services in high-tech standards and emerging disruptive technologies.
Photo credits
© Clingendael